Epidemiology Of Acne Vulgaris Health And Social Care Essay

My name is Nazar Hussain Malik. I am, presently working as a G.P with a medical group of a Dermatologist and household doctors in Toronto, Canada. Medical installation opens fives yearss a hebdomad from Monday to friday. There are about 1500 dermatology patients go toing per twelvemonth, on either assignment or referral footing. Most of go toing patients have diseases like eczema, acne, skin infections, hair and nails infections, and psoriasis and tegument malignant neoplastic disease. I am go toing dermatology patient ‘s direction. My selected patient name is Nancy ( name changed ) who is a 17 old ages old miss who is populating with her parents. Her female parent is Chinese and male parent is Indian. She was born and raised in Toronto. Her male parent and female parent work together in a departmental shop with an mean income. Nancy has been go toing an art college in the metropolis. Background Epidemiology is defines as the distribution of diseases and associated wellness and unwellness factors that influence the happening of disease at epidemic and endemic level.It is related with environmental and personal factors by topographic point, clip and and polpulation.Epidemiology helps to inform evidence-based medical specialty for placing hazard factors for disease in finding intervention attack. Acne vulgaris is most common disease in Uk and other universe.It is found in over 80 % of adolescence population of different ages. Acne is more common in males than in females. In maturity, acne vulgaris is more common in adult females than in work forces Prevalence of acne in a community sample of 14- to 16-year-olds in the UK has been recorded as 50 % . Acne affects 40 to 50 1000000s peoples in United provinces and 3 to 5 1000000s in Australia. Acne was the showing ailment in 3.1 % of people aged 13 to 25 old ages go toing primary attention in a UK population. Overall incidence is similar in both work forces and adult females, and extremums at 17 old ages of age. The figure of grownups with acne, including people over 25 old ages, is increasing. All races are affected by acne. Cystic acne is prevailing in the Mediterranean part from Spain to Iran. Acne vulgaris is a common chronic pilosebaceous inflammatory disease of face, back and chest. Most of the Patients with acne vulgaris see a important psychological morbidity and mortality. Depression, anxiousness and self-destructive ideation are the most common of psychological jobs. ICD-10- INTERNATIONAL STATISTICAL CLASSIFICATION OF DISEASES CODES L70. Acne L70.0 – Acne Vulgaris F32.2 – depressive episode In my hunt schemes, I used following web sites, Links and databases, to happen out articles, researches, abstracts, surveies, systematic reappraisals, RCT and Meta-analysis, I used following learning resources, University of Hertfordshire Database by Study Net, The Cochrane Library, PubMed, Medline, National institute for wellness and clinical Excellence. ( NICE, CKS, NHS ) , BMJ group grounds Centre, EADV. European academy of dermatology and venereology, Science Direct and Scopus, DermetNZ ( World Wide Web, dermnetnz, org ) , Google bookman through StudyNet. , WHO, DSM-IV Criteria and ICD-10-CA ( International statistical categorization of diseases and related wellness jobs 1oth alteration, Canada ) and CCI ( Canadian categorization of wellness intercessions ) . I used following hunt footings and hunt sets. Acne, acne vulgaris, epidemiology, aetiology, genetic sciences, pathophysiology, depression, anxiousness, To Identify cardinal beginnings of information, I used MeSH schemes, Boo lean operators to contract and broaden my hunt scheme. I applied Limits of English linguistic communication, human surveies, confirmed diagnosing, full text articles, grounds based record, life scientific disciplines, wellness and societal scientific disciplines. My inclusion standards was grownups and kids, confirmed diagnosing. My exclusion standards was babies, critically sick patients Evidences of strong association found between Acne and depression. Following surveies prove a relationship between Acne and Depression, Anxiety. Pouran Layegh, Hamid Reza Arshadi et al.Aug-2010, a comparative survey on the prevalence of Depression and self-destructive ideation in dermatology patients enduring from psoriasis, Acne, alopecia areata and vitilgo. , Persian Journal of Dermatology, Vol 13, No 4,2010. , ( Iran J Dermatol 2010 ; 13: 106-11 ) . , In this comparative survey of Depression, entire figure of qualified topics was 300 between the ages of 11 to 64 old ages. To look into the prevalence of Depression, BDI ( Beck Depression Inventory ) graduated table was used. 78 ( 26 % ) were enduring from Acnes, 62 ( 20.7 % ) from Psoriasis. 73 ( 24.3 % ) fro alopecia areata and 87 ( 29 % ) from vitilgo. This survey has provided conclusive grounds that childs with even mild grade of acne are more prone to Depression. K.Yazici, K.Baz-2004, Disease specific quality of life in patients with anxiousness and Depression with Acne. , JEADV.2004.18.435.439. , This survey includes 61 patients with acne vulgaris and 38 healthy voluntaries. Acne badness was assessed utilizing Global Acne Grading System ( GAGS ) .All participants completed followerss. Acne quality of life graduated table ( AQOL ) , Dermatology life quality index ( DLQI ) and Hospital anxiousness and depression graduated table ( HAD ) .The rate of topics at hazard of anxiousness was significantly higher In the patients group ( 26.2 % ) than in control group ( 0 % ) ( p=0.001 ) . MY SCOPE OF REVIEWS. cardinal issues, Epidemiology of Acne Acne and quality of life of my patient Cuases of Acne Incidende and prevalence of acne. Psychosocial effects on my patient. Critical Analysis and Analysis of current Literature. HISTORY EXAMINATION AND DIAGNOSIS 17 twelvemonth old Nancy has been sing our Practice installation since last 7 old ages.She visited in company of her parent. She told that she was merely 12 old ages old when acne start looking on her face by the clip she started her menses. Acne occupied beyond face toward cervix, shoulder, back and chest. After a twelvemonth she has legion acne, with a combination of white and black caput blackheads, musca volitanss, cysts, little ruddy bumps that feel stamp to touch, papules, pustules, and nodules. These acnes were sore, itchy and seeping out on rubing. She has experienced repeated episodes of acnes several clip. For intervention of acne, she used several over the counter readyings. Her female parent is Chinese and male parent is Indian. They gave her many Chinese and Indian redresss as good. When I asked Nancy about how acne started, she start shouting. Here is the narrative as she told. I was merely 12 old ages old when I saw a hickey over my face on right side of my olfactory organ. Following hebdomad I saw another pimple.I was in Grade 6 and did non notice.But following twenty-four hours a category chap pointed at my face and get down laughing.I asked why are you express joying. She told you look like a wild African adult female with points on face. In following few months I saw a large harvest of hickeies until the I saw a large cystic hickey around my nose and above my lip. It was really painfull. I got some on my brow between my superciliums. I thought it was for a clip being and will travel off shortly. Pimple were mending up rapidly and a new hickey was coming up. My tegument was still baby smooth. My acne truly flared when I was in grade 10. I avoided mirror and had to cover up my face most of the clip, walked around with a skining face from all the rough medical specialties. It was a muss. I had everything that you could call with any words. Painful cysts o n my cheek, comedos on my olfactory organ on both sides, my superciliums, random one on my mentum and brow. My female parent helped me a batch in doing me mentally prepared to confront all sort of state of affairs and making intervention. I started art college with the emphasis. I had about 10 deep ruddy hickeies bunch around my cheek Sides, I have been left with cicatrixs from these. My tegument will ne'er look just like before. I have marking on my cheeks, big pores on my cheeks and olfactory organ from the stupid comedos, and I have noticed more and more broken blood vass on my cheeks. For her acne job, Nancy visited two other GP offices, but acne were non relieved. She noticed that acne were more troublesome during monthly periods, eating fatty repasts, nuts and eggs. She realized that other pupils were looking at her face and express joying with remarks. It was aching her each clip. Even instructors did non like her face. She was barely maintaining her attending at the art college. She came to dermatology office 4 old ages ago for the intervention of her acne. Along with acne, she has been enduring from symptoms of anxiousness and depression due to failure in intervention and facial disfiguring. Her troubles were aggravated, when a miss started express joying while looking at her face full of acne. She wishes she could conceal her face. She feels helter-skelter, agitated and covetous when she sees any beautiful adult female. On her first visit she said she can non digest agonising antsy acne on her face and organic structure. In Family, her female parent has been enduring from Hypertension and Diabetes Mellitus.Her female parent has history of acne in adolescent age. Her male parent is basking a good wellness. Her expansive male parent died of long standing Diabetes Mellitus several old ages ago. In medicine history she has used several over antagonistic medicines, like clearasil attention, Rezamid Lotion, Sulphur unction, salicylic acid, Glycolic acid. The she tried topical Benzyole peroxide lotion, topical azaleic acid, unwritten Erythrocin and Achromycin. To command her anxiousness she used some tranquiller on occasion. She besides attend a decorative clinic to better her face before go toing any meeting. Acnes are classified in to, Type 1. comedonal, trim no scarring. Type 11. comedonal, popular, moderate scarring. Type 111. comedonal, popular and pustular with scarring. Type 1V. Nodulocystic acnes, terrible scarring. The Leeds Scoring System. we evaluate the badness by numbering figure of lesion by technique on a graduated table from 0 to 10 by utilizing ba exposure as a mention standard.. A mark of 10 is terrible. Here is photograph with acnes, By numbering the figure of acne lesions Leeds mark is calculated. TABLE- 1 The Cardiff Acne Disability Index NO Questions Mark 1 As a consequence of holding acne, during the last month have you been aggressive, frustrated or embarrassed? ( a ) Very much so ( B ) A batch ( degree Celsius ) A small ( vitamin D ) Not at all 2 2 Do you believe that holding acne during the last month interfered with your day-to-day societal life, societal events or relationships with members of the opposite sex? ( a ) Badly, impacting all activities ( B ) Reasonably, in most activities ( degree Celsius ) Occasionally or in merely some activities ( vitamin D ) Not at all 2 3 During the last month have you avoided public altering installations or have oning swimming costumes because of your acne? ( a ) All of the clip ( B ) Most of the clip ( degree Celsius ) Occasionally ( vitamin D ) Not at all 3 4 How would you depict your feelings about the visual aspect of your tegument over the last month? ( a ) Very down and suffering ( B ) Normally concerned ( degree Celsius ) Occasionally concerned ( vitamin D ) Not bothered 3 5 Please bespeak how bad you think your acne is now: ( a ) The worst it could perchance be ( B ) A major job ( degree Celsius ) A minor job ( vitamin D ) Not a job 3Instruction manuals for hitingThe marking of each reply is as follows: ( a ) 3 ( B ) 2 ( degree Celsius ) 1 ( vitamin D ) 0 The CADI mark is calculated by summing the mark of each inquiry ensuing in a possible upper limit of 15 and a lower limit of 0. The higher the mark, the more the quality of life is impaired. Entire Mark 13 TABLE-2. DLQI INDEX DLQI- DERMATOLOGY LIFE QUALITY INDEX Calculation The purpose of this questionnaire is to mensurate how much your tegument job has affected your life over the last hebdomad. Please tick one box for each inquiry. No Questions Tonss 1 How antsy your tegument 2 2 How abashed or self witting Because of tegument Mark 2 3 How much has your tegument interfered with you traveling shopping or looking after your place or garden 1 4 How much has your tegument influenced your apparels 1 5 How much has your tegument affected any societal activities 2 6 How much has your tegument made it hard for athletics 0 7 Has your tegument prevented you from working or analyzing. 1 8 How much has your tegument created jobs with your spouse, or any of your close friends or relations 2 9 How much has your tegument caused any sexual troubles 0 10 How much of a job has the intervention for your tegument been, for illustration by doing your place messy or by taking up clip 2 Entire Tonss 13 TABLE-3. COOK GRADING SCALE FOR OVERALL for Severity of Acne. Badness of Acnes Grade description 0 Need non be perfect ; 3 little blackheads and/or papules are permitted, if they are scattered 2 Very few pustules, up to 3 twelve papules and/or blackheads ; no large or outstanding lesions ; lesions are barely seeable from 2.5m off 4 Between grades 2 and 6. Red lesions and redness are present to a important grade. Worthy of intervention 6 Numerous blackheads, but no redness or inflammatory lesions, legion pustules, lesions easy recognised at 2.5m, some pustules may be rather big ( 1-2 centimeter ) 8 Conglobata, fistula or cystic type acne or Highly inflammatory acne covering most of the face ; xanthous pustules extend to make out and chin..Diagnosis of Acne vulgaris was made on the footing of clinical symptoms. Presence and location of acne with itchiness, Following lesions were found on face cervix, shoulder and back with a combination of Whitehead and comedo blackheads, musca volitanss, cysts, little ruddy bumps, papules, pustules, pigmentations, cicatrixs and nodules. These acnes were sore, itchy and seeping out on rubing. She has experienced repeated episodes of acnes several clip. psychosocial factors present were depression with anxiousness and societal isolation. Hazard factors included were the age of 17, familial sensitivity, oily tegument, dietetic contents, pubescence anxiousness and tenseness. Following probes were done to guarantee that there was no other organic cause which may do dermatological and psychiatric symptoms or may interfere with the intervention. Full blood count, nephritic map trials, Liver map trial, a fasting lipid profile. Thyroid map trials, , B12, Folates, serum drug screen and tegument biopsy, EPIDEMIOLOGY. Causes. Exact cause of Acne is unknown. Most common myths about the causing of Acne vulgaris are increased sebum secernment, hapless hygiene, familial sensitivity, a high glycemic diet, oily nutrients, cocoa, spicy repasts, emphasis degree, puberty endocrines, infections with a bacteria p. acnes, Acnes are abnormalcy of greasy secretory organs attached to the hair follicles, found in cuticle. Greasy secretory organs usually produce an greasy substance called sebum. Due to multiple grounds these greasy secretory organs over secrete sebum, which mixes with dead tegument cells formation of ceratin and sebum stopper in the follicle. Proliferation of bacteria propionibacterium acnes releases free fatty acids and neutrophills, which destroys pilocebaceous secretory organs bring forthing enzyme liposes. Blackheads are produced by choke offing of greasy secretory organs with sebum, dead tegument cells and commensal bacteria, propionibacterium acnes. The sulting redness give rise to papules, septic pustules, nodules, cicatrixs and pigmentation in the corium Familial Factors. Nancy told that her female parent had a strong history of acne vulgaris in the same age†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Incidence. Prevalence CRITICAL EVALUATION AND ANALYSIS CONCLUSION AND REFLECTION CONSENT FORM Patient was in abroad. Presently, it non possible to recover the signed consent signifier.

Motivational Theories and Factors Essay

According to DuBrin, â€Å"†¦motivation is an energizing force that stimulates arousal, direction, and persistence of behavior† (2004, p. 121). It is the force inside the individual and process which allows us to get others to put forth effort. There are many motivational theories that can be used to motivate others (DuBrin, 2004). In the workplace, managers may need to find ways to motivate their employees. Three ways a manager might motivate their employees are: Setting goals, using operant conditioning to change behaviors, and using monetary incentives. These may all be used to motivate employees (DuBrin, 2004). Goals are what motivate us and others to strive to achieve accomplishments either set by ourselves or others. Goals create a self-dissatisfaction within us which gives us an incentive to reduce this dissatisfaction by achieving our goal. By setting goals, employees can improve performance and increase productivity (DuBrin, 2004). Another way to motivate employees is to use operant conditioning as used by B. F. Skinner. By providing rewards and punishments for behaviors, an employer can motivate employees to modify behaviors by providing consequences. An employee can use an incentive for positive behaviors such as increasing sales and receiving a commission or promotion. For negative behaviors such as not meeting goals set, an employer might demote the employee or even take away commissions or the promise of a promotion (DuBrin, 2004). Monetary rewards can be used to motivate an employee to improve performance and production. By offering commission or a raise, an employee will be motivated to achieve. By setting clear expectations, an employee can strive to attain or exceed expectations, knowing what they will be eligible to receive the incentive. (DuBrin, 2004). I believe that the three ways of motivating others, can also help me motivate myself. By setting personal goals for myself, I can motivate myself to accomplish those goals. After achieving the original goals, I will set higher goals to challenge me. Monetary or recognition rewards will also motivate me to be more productive. When given a choice between being rewarded or punished for behaviors, I will always avoid the negative behavior and opt for achieving rewards (DuBrin, 2004). Vroom’s Expectancy theory and Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory are two popular motivational theories. The Expectancy theory and Hierarchy of Needs theory have similar and contrasting ways of motivation. The Expectancy theory focuses on personal choices that an individual must make when faced with the possibility of working hard to achieve rewards and are affected by individual perceptions. Expectancy is how a person perceives the subject probability that one thing will lead to another. How a person’s perception of expectancy for effort will lead to performance and how performance will lead to reward probabilities (valance) increase, so does a person’s motivation force increase. (Scholl, 2002). The Hierarchy of Needs theory is based on satisfying our innate physiological needs first (food, shelter, water), then safety (job security, earning an income), then moving up the hierarchy ladder to satisfy our need for growth (love and belongingness needs, esteem needs, and self-actualization needs. Maslow states that until our basic needs are met first, we cannot move up the hierarchy ladder (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2011). The two theories are similar because they both have forces that drive our motivation. However, Maslow generalizes about our motivation whereas Vroom shows that ‘the same people are motivated by different things at different times and that different people are motivated by different things at the same time’ (Motivation Types, 2009). Vroom does not attempt to explain a person’s motivation like Maslow. Instead, he explains how people arrive at decisions to achieve the end they value. Both can be motivated by needs and self-esteem (Scholl, 2002). While financial incentives can be a good motivational tool, it can also have drawbacks. By offering monetary, promotions, or employee benefits to employees, it can increase an employee’s performance and production. However, the drawbacks to this are: a decrease in teamwork and inequitable rewards. If a person is working toward a goal to receive a monetary reward, he will most likely be less of a team player due to competition with coworkers. If monetary rewards go by income, a person who makes less will receive less monetary rewards than someone who receives a higher salary. An example of this is profit sharing (Ehow Money, 2012). Sometimes it may be better to have monetary rewards given as a team effort or equitable financial rewards for the same job performance.

Political Efficacy Essay

FACT: No Black person has ever been elected as president of the   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   United States of America.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   FACT: In spite of Blacks’ considerable population in America, very   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   few Black Representatives are elected; if elected, they still   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   remain in low positions in the government.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   These concepts remain to be unsolved puzzles that need deeper attention. These lead me to do a research regarding the present situation of Blacks in their political system and their way of thinking and behaving with regards to political matters that concerns them.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   This paper focuses mainly on how the issue on political efficacy among Blacks largely affects the views of people around the world. The paper aims to answer the major question: What major factors affect trends and even inconsistency in political efficacy among Blacks?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Based on my research, there are six major causes on why Blacks have very low political efficacy compared to non-Blacks, namely: segregation, political cynicism, socio-economic status, and awareness of inequality.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   These issues among Blacks concern us all. We can recall that Blacks have been a great part of world history and have major contributions on the world’s culture. The Blacks are the representation of almost all the other races in the world. My point is, in our world today, the mirror of reality shows us the two divisions of the world: the Whites, and the rest of the world. What is happening to the Blacks in almost all terms of their lives is happening to the ‘rest of the world’. Despite of their great number compared to Whites, the Whites still out-numbered them in terms of political, economical, educational, social, and all other rights. This research on political efficacy can fill or clear the gap primarily between the Whites and the Blacks. This paper will present the effects of the factors of political efficacy (segregation, socio-economic status, etc.) on the Blacks so that when there comes a time that the government will make policies, they know how these policies may affect the Blacks. The paper will also focus on the involvement and behavior of non-Blacks that might affect or is already affecting Blacks’ behavior and concerns in politics. LITERATURE REVIEW   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Scholars even from the past have been interested in studying political behaviors of the Blacks. One of the primary reasons of their interest might be the paradox on the large population but low political efficacy among Blacks. â€Å"Sense of political efficacy, according to Campbell, is the feeling that individual political action does have, or can have an impact upon political process.† Political efficacy as a whole is about â€Å"the impact of the individual citizen: the citizen affects political and social processes through elections, lobbying and other way of influencing political actors who in turn are expected to be responsive to the citizens’ interests and implement policy through their work and decisions effectively.† (Schneider 2006, p.1) Scholars construct several theories regarding political efficacy and conduct vast number of researches such as interviews, surveys, and observations. They even consult differ ent books, magazines and journal publications about political efficacy.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Scholars present theories and go deeper to finding about the patterns, cause, behavioral conditions, internal and external factors that might be the key to explaining the issues on political efficacy among Blacks.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Ananat and Washington pointed that segregation has a negative impact on Black political efficacy. The more segregated the metro areas are, the less likely that its residents are represented in the United States House by an individual who is from the Democratic Party or who votes in accordance with the desires of Black residents on civil rights and other issues. â€Å"We do however find evidence that in more segregated areas, non-Blacks are more likely to hold negative views of Blacks and of the policies that aid Blacks†¦. As Blacks are a minority of the population, in all metro areas, this polarization could explain the finding that Black civic efficacy is decreasing in segregation.† (Ananat and Washington 2006, p.4)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Poverty and resultant environment of deprivation were the driving factors in low levels of political efficacy (Woodly p.2). Ananat and Washington also agree when they stated that lower income subgroups are less likely to vote. They even mention that Blacks in more segregated metropolitan areas are fare worse than their counterparts in less segregated areas on a variety of economic outcomes (2006 p.20 & 26).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   According to Schley, R. Lyons, political cynicism is the belief that the government officials and authorities cannot be trusted. At all political levels of education, Black youth felt less politically efficacious and were more cynical than white youth. This has been remarkably constant across time and region.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Woodly argues that because of Blacks’ awareness of inequality, they are both less politically trusting and less politically efficacious. (Woodly p.27) The Clark tests found that Black children were more ambivalent about the racial identities than White and they identify themselves more closely with Whites. (Woodly p.11) This statement alone will show that Blacks tend to lose trust in the government on whether they will be given equal rights like the Whites as they give out their votes. These doubts will prove the unwillingness of the Blacks to vote. In this era of globalization, the media takes part in almost all the events that concerns the people’s view on everyday news and issues. Robinson (1976) argues that increase viewing of television programs increases the frustration with the political system and cynicism. Similarly, media use might also reduce the feeling of control held by the political institutions over the world. (Schneider 2006 p. 3)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   From all these sources that I have gathered, I have observed one inconsistency in the work of Ananat and Washington. They stated that the more segregated Blacks are the more contact they have with other Blacks and the more likely they are to be able to influence Black political behavior. However, they also mention a contradicting statement that segregation decreases Black voter turnout and/or increases non-Black voter turnout resulting in a decrease in Black civic efficacy.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The problem with some writers is they did not consider the other factors that may have an effect on political efficacy of Blacks such as history, religious beliefs and family or tribes traditions. There are also statements and even researches that are not very much relevant to the topic. The purpose of this paper is to summarize the points of the authors in the different works related to my topic for us to view the bigger picture. THEORIES AND HYPOTHESES Factors of Political Efficacy in Blacks   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In the effort of explaining the present situation and behavior of political efficacy among Blacks, we first explain some concepts that I have crossed referenced from a number of literatures and arguments that tackles the same concept of political efficacy (as given in the review of literature). And from these sources, I have derived these following certain points and factors wherein I believe political efficacy among Blacks can be further explained and in these factors I have given closer attention and consideration. Racial Segregation. In this study of political efficacy in Blacks, it is impossible not to consider the status and limitations of interactions of Blacks with other races; which gives the concept of segregation or racial segregation. Racial segregation is quite different from racial discrimination; the latter being ranging from individual actions to enforced discriminatory behavior. Racial segregation is typically the spatial and institutional separation of races; as exemplified by separate neighborhoods, attending different schools and receiving different social services (Wikipedia). Economic Status. Although economic status have numerous meanings and measures, its use and meaning will be in accordance with the context of income. In this study, we use poverty rates as the general measure of economic status; a measure that can be easily quantified and compared in the process of analysis. Political Cynicism. Literally, cynicism is the belief of using self-interest as the main motive of behavior (Wikipedia). In the political context, political cynicism can be defined as the belief that government officials and authorities can not be trusted (Woodly, p. 2). From this definition, we can plainly use political cynicism as a measure of external political inefficacy as suggested by opposition of the government and its policies. Self-esteem. In its common term, can literally and plainly mean trust to one’s self. In the context of this study, self-esteem will be constantly interrelated with self-efficacy and political efficacy as well. However, this does not mean that self efficacy and self-esteem are the same; it may even mean the opposite at times. Woody even supports the difference between the two and limited self-efficacy as the sense of competence or personal control of one’s self (Woody, p. 13). Institutional Inequality. Because this study is about the behavior of a certain race or identity, it can not be helped that certain clashes and conflicts are met in between this race and the environment. As we study the behavior of Blacks, we will also consider their interactions with the non-Blacks. Institutional inequality can be referred to as the dominance of non-Blacks over Blacks considering the imbalance in number of representations and policies in the government and other institutions.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Black Political Efficacy as a Whole   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In the comparative works done in understanding the political efficacy on blacks in its current context, this paper addresses the matter as a byproduct and interrelation of numerous factors and events and not just a simple cause and effect phenomena.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Although rigorous studies and measures were made in trying to explain black political efficacy as a whole, we now try to get a bigger picture by compiling these works and adding new factors into the matter such as the social events that may have affected the present situation.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   As earlier discussed in this study, numerous inconsistencies and non-correlation of factors have been observed and given much attention. This includes the inconsistencies on segregation (of Blacks and Whites) and the matter itself of political efficacy in the work of Ananat and Washington(2006).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In the work of Ananat and Washington (2006), it has been stated that the more blacks have contact with each other, the more likely they will influence political behavior (Ananat and Washington 2006, p. 3). But then again, she then deduced that segregation or groupings of Blacks causes political inefficacy as prescribed by their voter-turnout (Ananat and Washington 2006, p. 20). Judging these statements, we now turn on the assumption that there is a different driving factor that correlates segregation and political efficacy among Blacks. Having these views, we now look at another concept – political cynicism among Blacks. Although there may be relations between political cynicism and segregation, the relation is very vague. In another study (Woodly), political efficacy among Blacks was found to be quite varied among communities, may it be segregated from Whites or not. Having established the contrast between the two (segregation and political cynicism), political cynicism and Black political efficacy can now be correlated independent of segregation. Just form the definition itself of political cynicism; it is no longer a question that cynicism significantly correlates with low political efficacy; more particularly with external political efficacy. We can now eliminate segregation and p[political efficacy and take a much closer look at cynicism in further understanding this subject.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Although segregation’s direct link with political efficacy has been disproven, we now look upon how it indirectly affects efficacy by being a variable in other considerable factors. In the same study between segregation and efficacy (Ananat and Washington 2006), economic status; as measured by rates of poverty; was tackled as it varies in segregated and non-segregated areas. To see the point of comparisons between segregation and economic status, we must first see how economic status and political efficacy relates to each other. Through additional studies, it was significantly concluded that political efficacy among Blacks decreases in communities of high poverty rates. These are supported by reports that lower income sub-groups are less likely to vote (Ananat and Washington 2006, p. 20). This exemplifies that Blacks loses trust and hope in the political issues, government policies, and even in the government itself when they are in low income status. We now establish the trend that as economic status increase, political efficacy increases as well. We now go back to the comparisons between segregation and economic status among Blacks. The trend exhibits a very high correlation between being segregated and being of low economic status among Blacks, and vice versa (Ananat and Washington 2006, p. 20). The opposite goes to Whites, the more they are in less contact with Blacks, the higher their economic status is (Ananat and Washington 2006, p. 20). From here, we may deduce that in non-segregated areas where Whites interact more with Blacks, it seems that Whites are less productive or work-oriented. Intuitively, we can sense the concept of power-play between Blacks and Whites. And based on these assumptions, we can now introduce another factor into the matter of political efficacy among Blacks – the concept of institutional inequality. In this matter of institutional inequality, we may find that non-Blacks has the need to be segregated from and dominant over Blacks for social and economic efficiency, as supported by Ananat and Washington’s study. In the point of view of Black’s, this is very apparent and the effect to their economic actions has been proven. In metro areas where there are more job and income opportunities, it has been found that these are also the places where Blacks are the minority of the population (Ananat and Washington 2006, p. 4). This play of domination is not just in the context of the working office. In further studies, it seems that these trends have rooted from the pillars of the social community; more specifically from the childhood environment. In the findings of Kardiner and Ovesey (1951), it is significantly seen that Black children have negative evaluation of themselves, thus giving room for the concept of inequality. The more alarming idea in this study is that these children tend to start having cynicism tendencies at these young ages (Lyons 1970, p. 290). At these stages, studies have concluded that Black children derive their self-esteem by blaming the system or the government itself (McCarthy and Yancey 1971). These statements are supported by Hughes’ tests wherein the self-efficacy of these children; which is defined as competence and self-control; significantly scores lower than non-Black children. Relating this to political efficacy, we may find that this institutional inequality really does exist in the community. This then causes economic drops in the status of Black adults, and at the same time, develops the tendencies of children for political cynicism. Having laid all these factors into the way, this leads nowhere else but to the decreased political efficacy among Blacks. CONCLUSION   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Political efficacy among Blacks is not simply a matter of societal chance and thinking; it has a more complicated nature wherein a number of factors constantly defy and support each other. Although there are already numerous studies concerning the political efficacy in Blacks, it is found that there may be points and arguments that need more detail and attention; and some may even be misinterpreted and incorrect. The interrelation between segregation and political efficacy, though thoroughly studied and measured, in the end is found to have no direct link after all. However, having a direct effect on economic status (segregated areas have lower economic use for Blacks), segregation is still a factor in this matter. Economic downfall (measured by poverty rates), turns out to be a good reason and explanation of being less efficacious. On the other hand, the concept of political cynicism has; no doubt; the most understandable direct relation with political efficacy in Blacks. Simply from its definition of opposition to the government, political inefficacy increase along with levels of cynicism. Institutional inequality, by being present in a number of ways, has a lot of bearing in the status of Blacks. Its evident effect in economic status is proven by giving more financial advantage to the dominating race or group. And in turn, having deflected economic outcomes, affects political efficacy of Blacks. Not only that, these imbalance in equality is a basis of varying self-esteem. obviously, those of the dominating class will have higher self-esteem than the â€Å"lower class†, which in this case are the Blacks. The status of Blacks in the community; though it may be ignored and jeopardized; is still should be of concern to each and everyone. Although this study of literature and points of different authors about political efficacy is not a substitute in solving the problem stated, I hope to lighten and broaden the points by trying to look in different perspectives in the hopes of clearing out conflicts that may be or is already there. Having scanned and analyzed the articles concerning political efficacy among Blacks, I also have done my part in further strengthening their arguments; and if needed; also try to clarify and correct some inconsistencies and conflicts for intellectual purposes. But most of all, this paper is intended for readers to understand the situation and thinking of fellow Blacks, so that in the future we may have a deeper knowledge and consideration in our actions as to how it may affect each and every one of us.   References Ananat, Elizabeth O. and Washington, Ebonya. 2006. â€Å"Segregation and Black Political Efficacy.† New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Hughes, M. a. D. H. D. 1989. Self-Perceptions of Black Americans: Self-Esteem and Personal Efficacy. The American Journal of Sociology 95(1):132–159. Kardiner, A., and Ovesey, L. 1951. The Mark of Oppression. New York: Norton. Lyons, S. 1970. â€Å"The Political Socialization of Ghetto Children: Efficacy and cynicism.† Journal of Politics 32: 288-304. McCarthy, J. and W. L. Yancey. 1971. Reply to Washington by McCarthy and Yancey. American Journal of Sociology. 77: 590. Schneider, Daniel. â€Å"Extending Political Efficacy: Voters Perceptions of Efficacy of Elected Officials.† June 2006. http://www.stanford.edu/~danielsc/prop_nes_pilot_2006.pdf (November 30, 2007). Wikipedia. â€Å"Racial segregation.† December 3, 2007. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_segregation (December 3, 2007). Wikipedia. â€Å"Cynicism.† November 30, 2007. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cynicism (December 3, 2007). Woodly, Deva. â€Å"Black Youth Book Project: Political Efficacy Literature Review.† http://blackyouthproject.uchicago.edu/primers/reviews/efficacy.pdf (November 30, 2007).   

Work and Non-Work Relationship Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

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Journal 2 - Essay Example Barfing is something that is universal and yet so private, which makes it a perfect symbol of identity. Myles is telling a story about her political sestina, and then she narrates a story concerning a boat of barfers. She wants to puke herself because of her poem and her own feelings for it. She wants to express her sincere emotions, like a barf would have. In real life, however, it is hard to be â€Å"real† without being judged as fake. I believe she wants to say that to puke is â€Å"to be,† in the terms of â€Å"identity.† To puke is utterly natural in a most disgusting way. Who said it is disgusting anyway? Why cannot people freely barf without being judged? In other words, why cannot people be who they are and who they want to be with without feeling the disgusted eyes of the people around them? Myles is showing the way to knowing thyself through the art of barfing the inner contents of oneself. Myles’ relationship with her mother is troubled and the center of her barfing because as her mother, she is her foundation as a person. Myles, nevertheless, admits her complex relationship with the woman who gave birth to her. On the one hand, she wants to be near her again. I want to confirm with Myles if it is for companionship. Does she want to be with her mother because of her failed relationships with other women? She might be craving for comfort from the original woman of her life. Or, Myles might be blaming her mother for controlling her life, so she might as well suffer with her. Despite the restless emotions, Myles understands that her mother has not completely destroyed her. Living with her mother has turned her into a puke hater. She must have wanted to puke because she has a hard time being who she is with her mother. Myles cannot directly express her identity to her mother. Puking is her release. It is her way of â€Å"being† without being so blatant about it. Forming and

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Develop a Mission Statement - Assignment Example This 11-words mission statement provides a succinct description about its mission that it proposes for 2015. As Blythe, Zimmerman and Zimmerman (2005, p. 34) pointed, a mission statement gives clear expression to what is to be achieved by the company, in what manner it will be achieved and why this is worth achieving. Hilton is currently the fourth largest hotel chain just behind intercontinental Wyndham and Marriot international. Hilton plans to beat its competitors by 2015 with its new mission to reach wider population by helping its customers entertain to rejoice evermore. For this target to be accomplished, the company would thrive on innovation and invest extensively on technology to bring latest technology advantages to hospitality arrangements. Though ‘technology’ brings everything customers want, still people are always very likely to entertain with ‘nature’. In order to satisfy customers who are concerned about nature as well, Hilton proposes to align technology to nature, and facilitate traditional natural amusements and leisure parks with any latest and highly sophisticated technology advances that Hilton can reach at. As its mission illustrates, Hilton ultimately looks at customers to fulfill meeting of varying requirements of customers in regard to entertainment with technology and natural advantages and thus to seize this opportunity for long-term profitability of the firm. ‘Technology’ mentioned in the mission statement certainly reflects the strengths of the company in relation to its extensive investment in research and development and innovative projects. It will keep on trying to change its business strategy and techniques by adding latest technology to its marketing opportunities. The statement is motivating to it stakeholders because it clearly defines its potential strengths and ways that it can grab marketing opportunities for leisure, entertainment and hospitality

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Personal Worldview Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

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Social Networking Crisis Communication Assignment - 1

Social Networking Crisis Communication - Assignment Example In order to determine the most efficient medium of communication researchers conducted several case studies across the world. The first instance was carried out on a gun shooting incident in Virginia Tech. During this case study, the researchers conducted online monitoring of the newsfeeds from the affected institution. The online monitoring began one hour after the shooting. The participants of this research study lacked knowledge that their activities and posts were under study. In addition, the researchers went back and conducted interviews five days after the shooting incident. In Colorado’s case, the researchers created an informative and detailed timeline of the communication. The timeline was divided into two sections that are the official communication and unofficial communication. Under the formal communication part, the researchers had columns for university website and emails. On the other hand, under the informal communication sector, the researchers had two column s for Facebook and Flickr photos. In another case, study Southern California. The researchers monitored the posts and relevant messages from the fire crisis that rocked two counties that are Santa Barbara and San Diego. The researchers followed the local news websites and the online social media such as Facebook, Craigslist, and Flickr Photos. In addition, researchers conducted surveys and interviews in the affected areas ten days after the incidence. Furthermore, in the case of the earthquake in China, researchers monitored the social media news a minute after the incident. They keenly followed the posts on China most famous social site that is Tianya forum- a site with over 20 million users in China.

PAPER ON DOCUMENTARY PRAY THE DEVIL BACK TO HELL ON PBS Essay

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Management, where is best place to work Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

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Environmental Pollution Essay Example for Free

Environmental Pollution Essay Environmental pollution is one of the biggest problems the world faces today. It is an issue that troubles us economically, physically and everyday of our lives. The contamination of the environment is also being linked to some of the diseases that are around currently. Yet, most people do not know about this problem. This shows that environmental pollution is becoming an increasingly worse problem that needs to be taken care of as soon as possible, not only for the good of the environment but also for the people that live in it. Many factors are present for why environmental pollution has become such a large issue in the world. However, if the people of the world were to address the issue it would definitely help both the environment and its people. There are many activities that can be done by both the common citizen to the governments of the world, which could severally improve the worlds environmental problem. On the other hand, if the current way the worlds environmental problem is being handled continues, catastrophic consequences can follow for the future population. Over the years, environmental pollution has become more of a problem for a number of reasons. Due to the great increase in the worlds population, which is at 6.1 billion, energy use, and the number of vehicles on roads make air pollution a greater threat than ever  (Pollution, Environmental). Because of this, air pollution kills eight thousand people a year due to respiratory related problems  (Air Pollution Kills). Also, 40% of the worlds deaths are being attributed to environmental factors  (Segelken). With such a number of people dying a year due to air pollution one can see how much the environmental pollution is affecting us. This dilemma is only made worse due to the current means of disposing nuclear waste. Until 1993, Russia would resort to the dumping of its high and low level radioactive waste by dumping it into the Arctic seas and any other low-level waste into the Seas of Japan  (Nitze). Radiation from nuclear waste is known to cause a series of reactions in body tissue that results in damage to the bodies cells  (Daley). This can cause disease, such as cancer, injury, or death. The effects on the human body make the situation even worse for the people of the world. But, an even more common threat is the use of incinerators and landfills, for the reducing and disposal of waste. Using incinerators to reduce the volume of trash not only causes air pollution but also produces  toxic ash that must be disposed of in specially made landfills. Landfills themselves can pollute groundwater after heavy rain, which would then be drunk by the surrounding population.

Theories of Temperament: An Overview

Theories of Temperament: An Overview The literal meaning of personality springs from the Latin word ‘persona’, the mask employed by roman theatre actors. personality refers to our characteristics ways in which of responding to people and things. Personality is characterised by the subsequent features:- it has both physical and psychological parts. Its expression in terms of behavior is fairly distinctive in an exceedingly given individual. Its main options dont simply modification with time. its dynamic within the sense that a number of its options could change thanks to internal or external situational demands. Definitions of personality While there are many alternative theories of personality, the primary step is to know specifically whats meant by the term personality. The word personality itself stems from the Latin word persona, that referred to a theatrical mask work by performers so as to either project totally different roles or disguise their identities. A brief definition would be that personality is created from the characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings and behaviours that create someone unique. additionally personality, personality arises from inside the individual and remains fairly consistent throughout life. Some other definitions of temperament as given by some psychologists are: †¢ Personality refers to individuals characteristic patterns of thought, emotion, and behavior, along side the psychological mechanisms hidden or not behind those patterns. This definition means among their colleagues in different subfields of science, those psychologists United Nations agency study temperament have a novel mandate: to clarify whole persons. (Funder, D. C., 1997) †¢ Although no single definition is suitable to all or any personality theorists, we will say that temperament could be a pattern of comparatively permanent traits and distinctive characteristics that offer each consistency and individuality to an individuals behavior. (Feist and cur, 2009) Components of temperament So what specifically makes up a personality? As described within the definitions higher than, one would expect that traits and patterns of thought and feeling frame a crucial half. a number of the other basic characteristics of temperament include: Consistency theres typically a recognizable order and regularity to behaviors. basically, individuals act within the same ways in which or similar ways in which in an exceedingly style of things. Psychological and physiological temperament could be a psychological construct, however analysis suggests that its conjointly influenced by biological processes and wishes. It impacts behaviors and actions temperament doesnt simply influence however we tend to move and respond in our environment; it conjointly causes North American country to act in bound ways in which. Multiple expressions temperament is displayed in additional than simply behavior. It may be seen in our thoughts, feelings, shut relationships and different social interactions. THEORIES OF temperament Personality contains a long history ranging from mathematician, Plato, Aristotle, solon and varied different philosophers and writers. Plato Plato (427–347 BCE) outlined the human soul because the seat of temperament. in keeping with philosopher the soul consists of 3 basic forces guiding human behavior: reason, emotion, and appetence. Reason is given the very best price because it keeps the additional primitive forces of appetence and feeling treed whereas feeling and particularly appetence area unit considered the â€Å"lower passions.† Aristotle Aristotle (384–322 BCE), one in every of Plato’s students and also the teacher of Alexander the good, noted human soul because the psyche. Aristotle projected that the psyche is that the product of biological processes. He additionally saw the psyche as as well as a collection of faculties that he placed during a hierarchy of importance. the primary school that Aristotle distinguished is that the nutritive—the human organism’s basic drives to fulfill its bodily desires. This school is found in plants further as in animals and other people. successive and better school is that the sensory activity, that philosopher outlined because the facet of mind that interprets sensory information. Animals further as folks have a sensory activity school. The last and highest school is that the intellectual, that philosopher saw as distinctive to kith and kin. Descartes According to Renà © mathematician (1596–1650), a French thinker, human temperament is that the product of the interaction of divine and primal forces. He saw the essential force behind human temperament because the immortal soul—pure, perfect, and intangible. mathematician started to clarify however this religious entity interacted with the material body. His observation of associate anatomical dissection semiconductor diode him to suppose he had resolved this mind-body downside. He detected atiny low body within the apparent center of the brain referred to as the epiphysis cerebri or epiphysis cerebri, therefore named by the Greco-Roman MD Claudius I Galen (c. 130–c. two hundred CE) as a result of its form reminded him of a pine cone. Descartes(1649) came to the conclusion that that this conical endocrine gland should be the purpose of contact between the soul and also the body. philosopher philosophical system, that is that the philosophical position that 2 su bstances—matter and spirit, or brain associated mind—exist severally of every different though they interact—became the foremost common read within the Christian West when the seventeenth century as a result of it â€Å"explained† the existence of human discretion and consciousness in an otherwise mechanistic universe. Indeed, before the appearance of the pc, it appeared not possible to permit for consciousness while not appealing to nonmaterial ideas. Machiavelli Niccolà ² Machiavelli (1469–1527), a Florentine diplomat and political thinker, believed that temperament is best understood in an exceedingly social context. in keeping with Machiavelli, folks area unit basically egotistic, greedy, ungrateful, and unforgiving. moreover, he saw 2 primary forces as process human character. the primary one is associate Italian term—virtà ¹Ã¢â‚¬â€which is best described as a mix of positiveness, fearlessness, and assurance. Machiavelli referred to as the second force Fortuna, that is that the Latin word for luck. someone might become a robust leader with the assistance of an honest dose of virtà ¹ and Fortuna. in keeping with him leaders United Nations agency act out of kindness and a believe the essential goodness of humanity can continuously fail. This belief is usually expressed by modern folks as â€Å"nice guys end last.† There are variety of different theories regarding however temperament develops. totally different schools of thought in science influence several of those theories. Type theory of temperament Perhaps the earliest acknowledged theory of temperament is that of the Greek MD Hippocrates (c. 400 B.C.), United Nations agency characterised human behaviour in terms of 4 temperaments, every related to a unique humour, or humour. The sanguine, or optimistic, kind was related to blood; the unemotional kind (slow and lethargic) with phlegm; the melancholic kind (sad, depressed) with black bile; and also the choleric (angry) kind with bodily fluid. Individual temperament made up our minds by the number of every of the four humours. Hippocrates system remained authoritative in Western Europe throughout the medieval and Renaissance periods. abounding references to the four humours is found within the plays of playwright, and also the terms with that Hippocrates tagged the four temperament sorts area unit still in common use nowadays. the idea of temperaments is among a spread of systems that influence human temperament by dividing it into sorts. A wide popularized (but scientifically du bious) trendy assortment of temperament was developed within the Nineteen Forties by William Sheldon, associate yank man of science. Sheldon classified temperament into 3 classes supported body types: the someone (heavy and easy-going), person (muscular and aggressive), and individual (thin and intellectual or artistic). Trait theory of temperament A major weakness of Sheldons morphological arrangement and different kind theories generally is that the component of oversimplification inherent in inserting people into one class, that ignores the actual fact that each temperament represents a novel combination of qualities. Systems that address temperament as a mix of qualities or dimensions area unit referred to as attribute theories. Well-known attribute intellectual Gordon Allport (1897-1967) extensively investigated the ways in which during which traits mix to create traditional personalities, cataloguing over 18,000 separate traits over a period of thirty years. He projected that every person has about seven central traits that dominate his or her behavior. Allports commitment to building attribute analysis additional manageable and helpful by simplifying it had been expanded by future researchers, United Nations agency found ways in which to cluster traits into clusters through a method referred to as correlational analysis. Raymond B. Cattell reduced Allports in depth list to sixteen basic teams of inter-related characteristics, and Eysenck claimed that temperament can be delineate supported 3 basic factors: psychoticism (such delinquent traits as cruelty and rejection of social customs), introversion-extroversion, and emotionality-stability (also referred to as neuroticism). Hans Jurgen Eysenck conjointly developed a quadrant supported across emotional-stable and introverted-extroverted axes.

Finance Essays Financial Management

Finance Essays Financial Management Role of financial management in Wolfson Microelectronics plc. TASK 1: Financial management is related to the acquisition, financing and management of assets with a future goal and planning. Efficient financial management requires the laying down an objective or goal, because judgement whether a financial decision has been rightly taken or not must be in light of some standard. The most important goal of a firm in financial context is to maximize the value (wealth) of firm and of the shares holders’ wealth. Maximizing the wealth of share holders (owners) of the firm is judged by the effect of share price which is the result of business decisions. Thus we define role of financial management into three areas: Investments: Investment decisions for an investor are based on historical prices and security analysis of financial assets such as stocks and bonds. However from company’s point of view investment is all about finding out new feasible ways to manage the business mainly in area of production, distribution and marketing. Further more, company also considers which portfolio of the different types of financial assets to hold. A common example could be common stocks, preferred stocks, bonds and debentures etc. With regard of Wolfson Microelectronics, it made investments in Research and Development of capital equipment and soft wares to $10.6 m alone in 2004. Furthermore, company has intentions to significant contributions to research in the future. As a result value of fixed assets rose to $ 29,680k in the year 2004. Wolfson unveiled two main ideas behind putting capital expenditure (long-term investments):   to time the market requirement decrease production cost by constant research and design Wolfson clearly showed its intention not to distribute retained earnings among its shareholders due to the need of capital expenditure in future projects. The future electronics market belongs to consumer’s digital portable stuff. Wolfson’s management is planning to contribute in this huge market share around the world, making it sure they keep alive with the high demanding consumer market in the future, though they are newly born public listed company in the London Stock exchange. 1. Refer: Balance sheet figures (Pg. 53) of Wolfson Microelectronics plc. Annual  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Report and Accounts 2004 2) Financing: This is the second major issue of the firm as the management needs to ascertain How much money could be available by floating stocks in the market? Based on both factors, a company forms its capital structure. This is also referenced as ‘finance mix’. How much money they could borrow to run their business with getting in trouble of getting default or excess borrowings. Wolfson raised investment money to meet their requirements by issuing stocks (an increase of $ 9105 k) and increasing debt by $ 8273 k. In other words, it financed its projects by issuing stocks and bonds to its stakeholders. Wolfson plc. also mentioned financing of $1204 K as negative-inflow stream as compare to   $39,364 K   in year 2003 in the form of share capital issues and bank term loan. (3.) 3) Dividend policy:   In addition to two important decisions, dividend policy must be viewed as an integral part of the firm’s financing decision. The dividend payout ratio determines the amount of earnings that can be retained in the firm. Dividend payout ratio = Annual Cash dividends Annual earnings Wolfson paid equity dividends of $ 407 K in year 2003 but no dividends were paid in year 2004, but on non-dividend equity, company did not pay dividends to its shareholders. So the dividend payout ratio is Zero for year 2004. As described earlier, it has been clearly mentioned in the annual report to retain all future earnings for investment in development and expansion of business and the management does not expect to pay dividend at least for some years in future. (2.)   However, this is not an encouraging sign for shareholders of Wolfson because stock investors often judge performance of the company stocks by their growth which is possible by declaration of dividends. 2.Refer consolidated cash flow statement (Pg.54) of Wolfson Microelectronics plc. Annual Report and Accounts 2004 3. Notes to Cash flow statement (Pg. 72) of Wolfson Microelectronics plc. Annual Report and Accounts 2004 If we combine the effects of the financing, investment with dividend policy, the relation could be in a shape of three schools of thought: Some argue that Dividend policy is irrelevant because for a company investment and debt decisions are not relevant by the amount of dividend payments. This is also due to the fact when we say that capital markets are perfect and complete and all information is available regarding market conditions and its constituents (companies). Some say that High dividends increase Stock value. They provide the reason that dividends are more certain than capital gains (price growth of the securities), so a firm which is paying less returns but sticks with the dividends is more attractive for the share holders.   Thirdly, low dividends increase stock value because some argue that dividends actually hurt the investors in shape of taxes, so less dividend income means less tax deduction for the shareholder. TASK 2: Is Wolfson successful to satisfy needs of Shareholders? Certainly not according to the annual report 2004. As we discuss earlier, stock investors are not impressed at all knowing the fact company is not paying dividends, but one has to consider that Wolfson is a new public listed company in London Stock Exchange which has a great impact of its group directors holdings. If we look at the current price trend of Wolfson Micro Electronics plc. (source: uk.finance.yahoo.com), we find that there is good improvement in market price as it is trading above 200p per share from Sept, 2005 to date. The volume of the stock traders is also increased from July onwards, although in odd days there are sudden fall in price and volume which is bit worrying for shareholders. Chart 2.1 But the good aspect is Wolfson stock is performing above average as compare to FTSE index. If we see the chart 2.2, creating good price increase from beginning of this year. Chart 2.2 Let’s talk about the expectation of shareholder and growth rate of stock price in absence of dividends (as in the case of Wolfson). As shown in chart 2.3, if there is a decline in dividends, as a result the expectation level will also be decreasing and so as the price of the stock. A rise in the dividend growth then put the expectation of the investors at increasing level as well as the growth in stock price occur. Chart 2.3 Would it be better if Remuneration package for a Director is based on Shareholders wealth? The concept of shareholder’s wealth arises from the theory that a company should only work solely for the benefit of these people and has responsibilities to its owners. That could be an effective style in management and it sounds very good for the investors. Following points should be observed in this regard: If company is giving dividends to its share holders from the reserves allocated in the company retained earnings then there is a secure feeling for stockholders that they will not lose all of their money if company goes bankrupt. Management if decides to use dividends for increasing future value of the firm by utilizing them in capital expenditures, then this also makes sense for a firm like Wolfson that is involved in digital technology. We know that innovations and inventions are constantly taking place in this industry which means high proportion of firm’s money is spent on RD of new products. We have to bear in mind that distribution of dividends also require transaction cost for a firm to pay in the shareholders account plus dividend   income is taxable for shareholders. Knowing these facts, if were a Director of Wolfson I would not decide in company’s meetings not to distribute dividends to our shareholders at all for number of years. Rather than I would continue to give shareholders at least some amount of returns in form of dividends. Why I should go for the decision, this is because of following reasons Directors and top management are bound by fiduciary duties to act in the good interest of shareholders. Value of my firm will increase if shareholders have more trust in our performance. If we allocate a portion of profit towards them that means that as Directors of Wolfson, we give respect to our shareholders even in tough period of our business cycle (we know our company is new to the stock market but has opportunities to capture its share in the market). Moreover, total shareholder return of Wolfson would be lower than its competitors in the market because when stock investor compares the performance of different companies for his investment, it would be inevitable that share price appreciation and dividends paid are not in a row in our company. The reference group of companies (having similar business) in same sector would also pose threat for us when a shareholder takes investment decision.

Deception in Shakespeares Othello :: GCSE English Literature Coursework

Deception in Othello  Ã‚   In the play Othello, the very evil and conniving character Iago deceives the main characters. He prays mostly on the main character Othello. Othello is a black general who is married to a white woman named Desdemona. In the beginning of the play Othello promotes a man named Cassio to be his right hand man in his army. Iago, thinking that he was going to get the promotion, is furious by this and swears revenge on Othello. In his revenge he uses many people. One of these people is Rodrigo. He is in love with Othello’s wife Desdemona. Iago prays on Rodrigo and causes him to have a battle with Cassio. Iago prays very heavily on Othello towards the middle of the play. He begins to tell him that his wife Desdemona is cheating on him with Cassio. Iago plans this perfectly. Iago tells Othello to keep close watch on his wife Desdemona. At the same time he told Cassio to be very good to Desdemona. Iago tells Cassio that the only way to be back on Othello’s good side was to get close to his love, and that is Desdemona. So while Othello’s suspicious are up, Cassio is being especially nice to Desdemona. Iago chose a very good time to attack Othello’s emotions. At a time when Cassio has wronged Othello, he tells Cassio to get close to Othello’s wife, the love of his life. For a lot of Othello’s rule, Iago has been like Othello’s advise giver. He has been like a best friend to Othello. Iago was not only Othello’s advise giver but to many persons of power. This puts him in a great position already to do his evil bidding. Othello plays right along with Iago’s plan. Othello believes everything that Iago says. In a way, he falls into Iago’s plan a little to well. For Iago, everything happens at exactly the right time. Othello listens to what Iago says because Iago has gained much trust from Othello. He has no reason not to believe what Iago was saying. He played a part in his own downfall because he falls for every lie that Iago throws at him. He needed to have a stronger mind for things like that. Othello needed to think harder about what was being said to him by Iago. At the time that Iago was telling him these lies, it all seemed to make sense.

The Operation of Electric Motors :: essays research papers

I have written this science research paper to help people understand more about the electric motors and their operation. The electric motor transforms electrical energy into mechanical energy, which in turn makes motion possible. To better understand electric motors, one should first understand the basics of electric motors operation, electromagnetics. One can create an electromagnet by running an electric current through a wire which in turn will create a magnetic field. An electromagnet may only be a temporary magnet but it has the same magnetic properties as a permanent magnet. Any magnet creates a magnetic field and this magnetic field will contain two ends or polls, one North and one South. The fundamental law of magnets states that ?Opposites attract and likes repel? and the same holds true with an electromagnet. A simple electromagnet can be created by the use of a power source and a piece of wire as shown in Figure 1. The magnetic field created will be stronger then the magnetic field of the earth, effecting the compass and will cause the needle to move in the direction of this newly created magnetic field. As current flows through the wire, a magnetic field is created around the wire. Figure 2 shows the circular shape of the magnetic field around the wire as if you were able to look down the end of the wire. The magnetic field itself is invisible, but the magnetic field strength can be measured through the use of special equipment. The magnetic field weakens the further you move away from the wire and will always be perpendicular to the wire and the fields direction depends on the which direction the current if flowing. Since the magnetic field is always circular and perpendicular to the wire, the magnetic field can be increased simply by creating a coil of wire. Figure 3 shows an example of a simple electromagnet by coiling a wire around a nail and connecting it to a power source. The magnetic field is amplified by each loop of wire around the nail. An electric motor depends upon magnetism to function, to be more specific, electromagnetism. By continuously changing the direction of the electromagnetic field in a motor, we take advantage of the basic magnet principle that ?Opposites attract and likes repel?. This allows an electric motor to rotate.

Underlying Normal Traits Within Abnormal Personality Disorders

Running Head: NORMAL TRAITS WITHIN ABNORMAL PERSONALITY DISORDERS Underlying Normal Traits within Abnormal Personality Disorders Student University April 11, 2010 Running Head: NORMAL TRAITS WITHIN ABNORMAL PERSONALITY DISORDERS Abstract Scholars have argued for decades concerning the fact that there are normal personality traits underlying abnormal personality traits in people who exhibit dysfunctional personalities. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition is the determinative guide on the descriptions of these personality characteristics, and it determined that there were everal models to be considered when looking for a universal clinical definition of abnormal personality. Researchers used either the Big Four, Big Five or other models to describe what an abnormal personality consisted of and how it related to a normal personality as studied. Researchers measured personality differences based on qualitative, quantitative and other key factor diffe rences to determine normal or abnormal functioning personalities. It was difficult to determine one substantive definition, as the traits overlapped from normal to abnormal characteristics noted. Later, the definition of personality dysfunctions included life skills, personal tasks and life goals, and whether the individual was able to function as a member of his society, while meeting the expectations of that society. A person’s maladaptiveness and evolutionary sense were added as part of the definition of whether the personality was normal or abnormal, and whether a person had the skill to be able to manage personal relationships were considered as well in the general definition of abnormal personality. Today, treatment options are expanded from the traditional therapy treatments to include drug therapies, psychodynamic herapy, day hospital intervention, and dialectical behavior therapy. To date, day hospital interventions have proved very successful on non-schizophrenic patients suffering from abnormal personality traits. Running Head: NORMAL TRAITS WITHIN ABNORMAL PERSONALITY DISORDERS Introduction Scholars have argued for decades concerning the fact that there are normal personality traits underlying abnormal personality traits in people who exhibit dysfunctional personalities. Recently, scholars have begun to make an argument that current category systems of personality isorders (PDs) should be substituted by trait dimensional scheme designations in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV; American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Experts are leaning towards using a Big Four model, which are â€Å"essentially maladaptive variants of the Big Five traits of normal personality, minus Openness† (Watson, 1545). In a discussion of this issue by Watson, Clark and Chmielewski, they state that the newly comprised Big Four model excludes odd or eccentric Cluster A PDs, (Watson, 1545) and that their results noted from three studies show a relationship examining the actors of normal and abnormal personalities. Their results established that the Oddity factor was considered more broad than the Cluster A tr aits and more distinct from Openness and other Big Five models, which suggested â€Å"an alternative five factor model of personality pathology (considering only abnormal traits) and an expanded, integrated Big Six taxonomy that subsumes both normal and abnormal personality characteristics† (Watson, 1545). Model Theories The Watson study explains that the Big Four structure was a result of developed hierarchical models that combined general models, like the Big Three and the Big Five models. These former models of personality reviews included multidimensional factors reminiscent of Running Head: NORMAL TRAITS WITHIN ABNORMAL PERSONALITY DISORDERS past personality inventories. When the Big Three and Big Five models were formally combined, it was apparent that â€Å"two higher order traits—Neuroticism/Negative Emotionality and Extraversion/Positive Emotionality—are included in both models† (Watson, 1547). Considering these changes, Watson proposes a â€Å"Big Four† theory which does not include Openness, but does include many of the traits of the other theories. Watson reports that their research on the Big Five heory also includes research on a Big Six taxonomy â€Å"that subsumes both normal and abnormal personality dimensions (Watson, 1551). Definitions of Abnormal Personalities Researchers have made recent discoveries that â€Å"abnormal personalities can be modeled as extremes of normal personality variation† (O’Connor & Doyc e, 2001) (Markon, p. 139). Even though researchers agree that it is possible to describe normal and abnormal personalities within the same frameworks, they disagree on the structure of what the framework will encompass. Even abnormal personality traits are seen now as a variant of the extremes that can happen when eviewing normal personalities. One way to make sense of the distinctions between normal and abnormal personalities is to describe personality disorders (PDs) and develop a working definition for them. By defining the traits for PDs, the researcher is able to develop a base for delineating personalities studied. Once normal traits are identified, abnormal traits need to be assessed. This can be done by reviewing the Big Five model of abnormal personalities. This is the juncture that normal and abnormal personalities overlap. Apparently, there are similar modeling structures that can be tilized to describe both normal and abnormal personalities. Some traits are very common R unning Head: NORMAL TRAITS WITHIN ABNORMAL PERSONALITY DISORDERS between the two models, and others mimic similar personality descriptions. Meta-analytic Investigation Model One cohesive factor that applies to both normal and abnormal personalities is the meta- analytic investigation model. This model was proposed by O’Connor in 2002, and it stated that there were structural relationships between normal and abnormal personalities (Markon, p. 142). The O’Connor study in 2002 reviewed 37 personality and psychopathology inventories to etermine if dimensional structure differences existed between clinical and nonclinical respondents (O’Connor B. P. , 2002). O’Connor found similarity between normal and abnormal populations reviewed and measured similarities â€Å"both in the number of factors that exist in the data matrices and in the factor pattern† (O’Connor B. P. , 2002). The ten abnormal behavior disorders listed by the DSM-IV are listed as: paranoid, schizoid, schizotypal, antisocial, borderline, histrionic, narcissistic, avoidant, dependent, and obsessive–compulsive† (Livesley & Jang, p. 258). Each of these disorders shows traits, and it is he way that professional clinicians are able to make accurate diagnoses of abnormal personality traits of their patients. This listing of traits by the DSM, showed that the distinction between what was considered normal and what was considered abnormal was often defined by distinguishing the â€Å"qualitative distinction between the two† (Livesley & Jang, p. 258). Unfortunately, in truth researchers have come to find out that there are no true separations between normal and abnormal disorders, and they are hard pressed to find the dividing lines between the two entities. O’Connor asked whether the distinction can be made using former Running Head: NORMAL TRAITS WITHIN ABNORMAL PERSONALITY DISORDERS models, and what exactly was normal or abnormal personality disorder. When the conceptual distinctions between the two were reviewed, there are several models to note. The most noteworthy working model being that there was â€Å"no evidence of discontinuity in the distributions of 100 traits selected to provide a systematic representation of personality disorder† (Livesley & Jang, p. 259). In other words, there was no concrete evidence that the researchers would consistently find traits that were exclusively common or descriptive of a specific personality disorder. In fact, personality disorders were measured across normal and control groups. The findings were that there were similarities within the disorder traits and that some equaled normal and others disordered personality traits. In this way, the researchers queried whether disorder traits could be seen in normal personalities. The answer was that there were few solid frameworks to make the decision which would provide a definitive answer to the question. In effect, extreme ends of the traits seemed to be deemed disorders, while extreme variations alone may not have been considered enough to state that a personality disorder actually existed. Quantitative Differences in Normal and Abnormal Personalities Quantitative differences exist between the normal and abnormal personality. The differences often mix up and muddle the personality traits and the disorders apparent within them. With personality disorders, often â€Å"it is difficult to see how an extreme score on dimensions such as conscientiousness, extraversion, or agreeableness is necessarily pathological. Researchers agreed that there were to be other additional factors that needed be present to justify the diagnosis (Livesley & Jang, p. 262). That additional trait is inflexibility and subjective Running Head: NORMAL TRAITS WITHIN ABNORMAL PERSONALITY DISORDERS distress (Livesley & Jang, p. 259). The character trait of inflexibility is defined as one where the person has extreme traits, but not necessarily only an extreme position noted on any given trait. For example, a person who is extremely open and gregarious, but then is not able to tone down his personality when necessary would be an example of this trait. Continuing with this example, what would make the person who is considered otherwise outgoing and spontaneous a person who is suffering from a personality disorder? Maladaptive Personalities The answer may come from prior work done by researchers who were determining personality and abnormal personality disorders. Extreme actions alone were not enough to say the person operated outside of â€Å"normal† personality parameters. The researchers at the time believed that personality disorders were the result of someone suffering from an abnormal variation of a personality being studied. It was measured in how much the person suffered from the disorder. This is where the theory of maladaptation or dyscontrolled impairment came into play (Widiger & Trull, 1991; Widiger & Sankis, 2000). The reason the researchers sought a generalized definition is that without one, they â€Å"would have to catalogue the various maladaptive manifestations of each trait† (Livesley & Jang, p. 263). This was a difficult proposition, since even â€Å"normal† people were prone to exhibit maladaptive traits at some time in their lives. Another problem came with the idea of traits as one certain set of behaviors that were noted on subjects clinically or otherwise. Extreme exhibitions of a trait may show some measureable amount of psychopathology, but were not exclusively indicative of being considered classically maladaptive. In this way, the researchers determined Running Head: NORMAL TRAITS WITHIN ABNORMAL PERSONALITY DISORDERS that the â€Å"definition of personality disorder needs to incorporate features of disorder that are separate from, although possibly correlated with, extreme trait variation† (Livesley & Jang, p. 263). Harmful Dysfunctional Traits in Personalities These descriptions of personality were necessary because there were more than these factors to consider when determining a personality disorder. In fact, personality was considered to be â€Å"a system of interrelated structures and processes† (Costa & McCrae, 1994; Mischel, 1999; Vernon, 1964) which included a person’ dispositional traits, motives, coping mechanisms, and ability to tame impulses are part of the process of determining normal or abnormal indications of personality. In other words, if these traits were considered â€Å"harmful dysfunctions,† (Wakefield, 1992; Livesley & Jang, p. 263) they consisted of harmful traits that were underlying natural functions. So, the definition of a personality disorder can be considered a harmful dysfunction in the normally adaptive functions of a person’s personality system (Livesley & Jang, p. 263) Another issue within the developing studies of personality disorders was that personality functions were considered to be seen as disturbed in individuals who exhibited personality disorders. Researcher Cantor described a person’s personality as the types of tasks a person sets as personal goals, and they way the person looks at his or her â€Å"self, and life situations, and the strategies used to achieve personal tasks† (Livesley & Jang, p. 263). This delineation of personality traits offered a true to form definition of what a personality disorder consisted of for the individual suffering from it. It was considered of a higher order than simply a dysfunction of a personality trait. Here it was described as needing to concentrate on life tasks as the Running Head: NORMAL TRAITS WITHIN ABNORMAL PERSONALITY DISORDERS determining factor to determining if an individual had a personality disorder, and was therefore considered abnormal in terms of functioning personality. The researchers assumed that as a person lives his life, he orders his tasks as to what he sets as priorities for completing goals and meeting the needs of his immediate surrounding community and culture. This comes under the order of living in society and meeting the expectations of people who live near the individual, or a way of fitting in within his community. It also had to do with the person’s mean biology, or biological features characteristic of the individual. In fact, these tasks did vary depending on where the person lived and what the person had do to be able to survive in his culture. These may come under the umbrella of life skills, and they are definitely different considering where a person lived or had grown up. For example, a person who grew up in a small native Alaskan out island would have different life skills that ould a person who grew up and lived in a borough of Manhattan, NY. The two personalities of these individuals might be similar, but their life skills would be developed in obviously different ways. The person living in the native island village would have an understanding of the elements and what is necessary for bare-bones survival in possibly e xtreme conditions. While, the person who grew up in the city would have to understand how to be â€Å"street smart† and may need to know how to survive in even a potentially violent atmosphere if the neighborhood suggested those skills were essential to survive on a daily basis. Each individual may otherwise be soft spoken, or be considered similarly warm-hearted or kind. But decidedly, their life skills would separate them and put them a world away from each other in what they knew and needed to depend on to survive in their environment on a daily basis. Running Head: NORMAL TRAITS WITHIN ABNORMAL PERSONALITY DISORDERS Universal Tasks Underlying Personality Traits The researchers then understood that there would need to be a set of universal tasks that needed to be identified. These universal tasks were considered of â€Å"evolutionary significance† nd featured four universal challenges as set by Plutchik (1980). These were the four ways a person’s identity was developed and they included: the solution to the problems of dominance and submissiveness created by hierarchy that is characteristic of primate social hierarchies; development of a sense of territoriality or belongingness; and solution to the problems of temporality, that is, problems of loss and separation. This allowed the researchers studying personality disorders to come to the conclusion that personality disorders prevented an individual from managing the adaptive answers or solutions hat were considered universally applicable to everyone, or a person’s life tasks. When an individual had a deficit in any of these areas, there was a noted â€Å"harmful dysfunction† and the person was unable to adapt to be able to function in his environment or society. The life tasks then seen as either being fulfilled or being abandoned by the individual, probably because of this identified deficit. Personality disorder was seen as different from other disorders by the fact that these failures â€Å"should be enduring and traceable to adolescence or at least early adulthood and hey should be due to extreme personality variation rather than another pervasive and chronic mental disorder such as a cognitive or schizophrenic disorder† (Livesley & Jang, p. 26 4). Running Head: NORMAL TRAITS WITHIN ABNORMAL PERSONALITY DISORDERS Evolutionary Sense Within Personality Traits There was talk of the individual not being able to adapt to his environment in an â€Å"evolutionary sense† which spoke to whether the person had garnered enough skills for ensuring adaptive social behavior to allow reproduction and survival (Livesley & Jang, p. 264). This was xplained as stating that the adaptive traits would contribute to the person adapting to his environment and society in general, and the person adapting to his family unit would move the person towards being able to rear children and eventually reproduce to pass down his traits to offspring later on. This is the general definition of people who have self confidence in their dealings with others, and are able to live in harmony in stable relationships, while becoming productive members within their society or community. These can be seen to be part of the ancestral or evolutionary needs of ev ery individual, whether the person had an abnormal ersonality or normal personality. The more common description of an abnormal personality comes from what the common person observes when someone has problems dealing within a relationship. Rutter (1987) stated that personality disorders were characterized by â€Å"persistent, pervasive abnormality in social relationships and social functioning generally† (Rutter, p. 454). Also, Tyrer (2001) stated that â€Å"we do not necessarily need to know everything about someone's personality to recognise the elements that make it disordered† (Tyrer, p. 83). Tyrer states quite honestly that psychiatrists iew these descriptive axioms as something to be deferred, and says â€Å"personality disorder and mental retardation are stigmatic terms that psychiatrists like to avoid† (Tyrer, p. 83). So the question is, how can one determine the underlying normality within the abnormal Running Head: NORMAL TRAITS WITHIN ABNORMAL PERSONA LITY DISORDERS personality? For this the clinician and the layperson need review the DSM-III, considered the premier source of personality disorder classification (American Psychiatric Association, 1980). The DSM classifies what is considered normal and abnormal in terms of personality. The professionals in the field disagree to the proposed stereotyping of this group of classifications, on the basis of the fact that such profiling is considered â€Å"quite inappropriate in such a complicated field† (Tyrer, p. 84). In fact, it appears that there are burgeoning alternative and substitute classifications being used for determining personality disorders in surveys, trials, studies and private practice. Most people would be surprised to find out that this topic has been heatedly debated over the past two decades. Many people most likely assume that there is one clinical efinition of what is normal, and what is not normal when it comes to personality disorders. The media plays into this, as well as the television and movie plots. The person seen as abnormal is cloaked in symbolic black, speaks in a raspy voice or has otherwise obvious mentally deviant behaviors that even the least sophisticated person in the audience could confidently label as the â€Å"bad guy. † Personality Disorders Studied Abroad Even the study of personality disorders abroad have led researchers to agree to disagree in the area of determining how to describe profiles for patients with underlying normal traits within heir abnormal personality profiles. In a study performed by McCrae (2001) in The People’s Republic of China, 1,909 psychiatric patients were examined to determine the accuracy of the hypotheses determined from the Interpretive Report of the Revised NEO Personality Inventory (McCrae, p. 155). The researchers determined that the PDs were not separate categories that Running Head: NORMAL TRAITS WITHIN ABNORMAL PERSONALITY DISORDERS could be determined in a vacuum. They realized that they needed to consider a more comprehensive and forgiving system of personality traits, to be considered an accurate measure f the patient’s personality issues and concerns. The researchers found that the personality traits of the patients did not fit into the DSM-IV defined traits. They did â€Å"draw on the same five underlying personality traits† (McCrae, p. 171), and were considered redundant, but there were several areas of overlap to be considered conclusive. In fact, over 60% of the patients that were being treated for maladaptive personalities were not meeting the criteria defined in the DSM-IV, as relating to any criteria for a PD (McCrae, p. 171). The maladaptive behaviors, the person’s habits and personal attitudes were all measured o find a comprehensive scale for measuring the personality traits of the patients. It was determined that the results were insignificant, and concluded that personality profiles were â€Å"modest predictors of categorical PDs, but they are immensely informative about people† (McCrae, p. 172). Treatment Options for Abnormal Personality Traits But clinicians and psychiatrists are still interested in treating and helping people who exhibit the traits of these personality disorders identified above. They are in disagreement whether there are normal traits that are underlying the abnormal personality traits that deserve to e treated in an effort to offer the patient an opportunity to live a full and productive life. This is a critical option for people who have normal personality traits, but also exhibit the identified borderline abnormal personality traits as well within their psyche. Over a half decade ago, the best treatments were heralded as therapeutic, and they seemed Running Head: NORMAL TRAITS WITHIN ABNORMAL PERSONALITY DISORDERS to promise the greatest success overall. But today, there are many alternate treatments available for individuals exhibiting abnormal personality disorders. They include drug therapies, sychodynamic therapy, day hospital intervention, and dialectical behavior therapy (Linehan, 1992, Tyrer, p. 84). Other methods of treatment that carry high success for the patients are the partial hospitalization of patients (Bateman & Fonagy, 1999). Bateman & Fonagy compared the effectiveness of treating patients exhibiting borderline personality disorders with partial hospitalization s a standard psychiatric care. They studied thirty-eight patients with borderline personality disorder and offered them individual and group psychoanalytic psychotherapy, for up to 18 months (Bateman & Fonagy, 1999). The results were that the patients who had been partially hospitalized did exhibit less problems, with â€Å"An improvement in depressive symptoms, a decrease in suicidal and self-mutilatory acts, reduced inpatient days, and better social and interpersonal function began at 6 months and continued until the end of treatment at 18 months† (Bateman & Fonagy, 1999). Their conclusion was that the partial hospitalization was determined as a far superior type of psychiatric care for those patients exhibiting borderline personality disorder. This treatment option was in opposition with the standard treatment options of the herapies listed above. These results were similar in the study by Piper, (1993) where a day treatment program at the University of Alberta Hospital in Edmonton, Alberta was studied. The patients were referred from the day treatment program and walk-in clinic, and utilized participants with â€Å"chronically disturbed non-schizophrenic patients, who usually have aff ective and personality disorders† (Piper, p. 757). The results of the study were that day treatment programs were considered effective for patients with long-term nonschizophrenic disorders. The Running Head: NORMAL TRAITS WITHIN ABNORMAL PERSONALITY DISORDERS atients noted significant improvement in â€Å"four of the five areas studied—interpersonal functioning, symptomatology, life satisfaction, and self-esteem—as well as in several of disturbance associated with individual objectives (Piper, p. 762). Reference American Psychiatric Association (1980) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (3rd edn) (DSM—III). Washington, DC: APA. Bateman, A. & Fonagy, P. (1999). Effectiveness of partial hospitalization in the treatment of borderline personality disorder: a randomized controlled trial. 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